Description
This book has been written mostly within sight of wild African ungulates, at the research center in Tsavo East National Park, V oi, Kenya. While this had many positive aspects, there were also a few drawbacks. The main one of these is the fact that Voi is not exactly at the hub of scientific activity, even if we restrict ourselves to African ungulates. Thus, whereas I had felt initially that I was sufficiently familiar with ethological work on these animals to write a useful review, it soon became woefully evident that this assumption was erroneous. Over the last few years studies on African ungulates have pro liferated and results are being published in journals almost all over the world. My location in East Africa was sometimes less than ideal with respect to access to the most recent literature, and I depended to a considerable extent on the goodwill of colleagues in giving or lending me relevant papers. I am happy to report that I received a great deal of support and cooperation in this respect. Nevertheless, I may have over looked some important papers inadvertently; their authors should not feel slighted by such omissions, which only reflect availability of literature to me. Readers may also notice a considerable geographical bias in favor of East Africa, at the expense of other African regions, particularly South Africa. 1 General Background.- 1 African Habitats.- 2 The Ungulate Fauna of Africa.- 3 Ethological Research on African Ungulates.- A. Historical Review.- B. Methods of Study.- 4 Conservation.- 2 Comparative Review of Nonsocial Behavior.- 5 Physical Maintenance Behavior.- A. Feeding Behavior.- I. Food Gathering and Ingestion.- II. Selectivity.- III. Development of Food Habits During Ontogeny.- B. Drinking Behavior.- C. Urination and Defecation.- I. Postures.- II. Spatial and Temporal Distribution.- III. Associated Behavior.- IV. Specific Examples.- D. Comfort Behavior.- I. General Review of Ungulate Comfort Behavior.- II. Allogrooming.- 6 Behavior Related to the Environment.- A. Habitat Selection.- B. Space-Related Behavior.- I. The Concept of Home Range.- II. Size of Home Range.- III. Internal Anatomy of the Home Range.- IV. Functional Aspects of Home Range.- V. Movements and Migrations.- C. Time-Related Behavior.- I. Daily Activity Patterns.- II. Annual Patterns.- D. Space-Time Systems.- I. The Daily Space-Time System.- II. The Annual Space-Time System.- E. Influences of Weather on Behavior.- I. Sunshine and Temperature.- II. Wind.- III. Rain.- 7 Relations with Animals of Other Species.- A. Positive Relations.- I. Ungulate-Ungulate.- II. Ungulate-Other.- B. Neutral Relations.- C. Negative Relations.- I. Ungulate-Ungulate.- II. Ungulate-Parasite.- III. Ungulate-Predator.- 3 Social Behavior.- 8 Expression and Communication.- A. Visual Signals.- B. Auditory Signals.- I. Vocalizations.- II. Nonvocal Signals.- III. Combined Visual-Auditory Displays.- C. Olfactory Signals.- I. Scents Emanating from the Body.- II. Urine and Feces as Scent-Bearers.- III. Marking with the Products of Scent Glands.- IV. Interindividual Marking.- V. Functions of Scent-Marking.- D. Tactile Signals.- 9 Individual Recognition.- 10 Coordination and Cooperation.- 11 Leadership.- 12 Agonistic Behavior.- A. Introduction.- B. Weapons and Fighting Techniques.- C. Threat and Intimidation Displays.- D. Submission and Appeasement.- E. Systematic Review.- 13 Sexual Behavior.- A. Precopulatory Behavior.- I. Male Behavior.- II. Female Behavior.- B. Copulation.- C. Postcopulatory Behavior.- D. Systematic Review.- E. Functional Aspects.- 14 Maternal/filial Behavior.- A. Prepartum Behavior.- B. Parturition.- I. Time of Day.- II. Position and Behavior During Parturition.- C. Postpartum Behavior.- D. The Mother-Young Bond.- I. Imprinting.- II. Spatial Aspects.- III. The Sensory Basis for Individual Recognition.- IV. Suckling and Associated Behavior.- V. The Following Response.- VI. Maternal Defense.- E. Behavioral Development of the Young.- F. Weakening and Dissolution of the Mother-Young Bond.- G. Functional Aspects.- 4 Social Organization.- 15 General Patterns in Social Relations.- A. Gregariousness, Aggregations and Social Groupings.- B. Spatial Relationships Between Individuals in Groups.- C. Dominance and Territoriality.- I. Dominance.- II. Territoriality.- 16 Types of Social Organization in African Ungulates.- A. Nonexclusive Home Ranges.- B. Nonexclusive Home Range but Exclusive Home Site.- C. Exclusive Home Ranges in Both Sexes.- D. Exclusive Home Range in Males Only: Home Range Coincides with Territory.- E. Only Part of Home Range Exclusive, in Males Only: Mating Territory.- F. Territory and Absolute Hierarchy Combined.- 5 Behavior and Ecological Adaptation.- 17 The Influence of Environmental Factors on the Spatial and Social Organization.- A. Movements and Home Range.- B. Social Organization.- I. Sedentary versus Migratory Populations.- II. Seasonal Changes Within Populations.- III. Influences of the Local Environment on Social Organization.- 1. Vegetation Structure.- 2. Rainfall and Degree of Aridity.- 3. Population Density.- 18 Functional Aspects of Certain Social Behaviors.- A. Gregariousness.- B. Dominance.- I. Territoriality.- II. Absolute Dominance.- C. Social Organization.- 19 Relationships Between Morphology, Ecology, and Social Organization of African Ungulates.- 20 Applications of Ethological Information to Management.- A. Conservation and Hunting.- I. Reactions to Environmental Conditions.- II. Reactions to Man-Made Disturbances.- III. Specific Implications for Research and Management.- 1. Censusing.- 2. Capture and Marking.- 3. Translocation and Restocking Operations.- 4. Other Contexts.- B. Game Ranching and Cropping.- I. Food Selection and Intake.- II. Activity Patterns.- III. Social Interactions.- IV. Effects of Spatial Constraints.- C. Management in Captivity.- D. Conclusion.- References.- Systematic Index.
